Project Planning and Scheduling (CUT Module) Notes — MCN 310 / MNG 0001–Style Exam Prep for Students at Central University of Technology (CUT)

Project planning and scheduling is the backbone of project management: it turns a vague idea into an organized plan with deliverables, timelines, responsibilities, and measurable progress. For CUT students studying project management modules (often aligned with short-course and diploma-level formats such as MNG 0001-style management fundamentals and MCN 310/MCN-aligned scheduling-style content), exam questions typically test your ability to structure work, build schedules, select scheduling techniques, and explain how risks and resource limits affect completion dates. These notes focus on practical exam-ready frameworks, including activity sequencing, estimating, critical path logic, and schedule control—written in a way that matches the kind of reasoning expected in South African university project management assessments.

1) Project Planning Foundations for CUT Project Scheduling Exams

Project planning is not only about drawing a timeline. In university exam settings, “planning” usually means you can justify scope, work breakdown, activity definition, sequencing, and scheduling assumptions—and you can do it using structured project management language (scope statement, WBS, milestones, dependencies, constraints). A schedule is the output of planning, but the quality of the schedule depends on earlier planning steps.

1.1 Define the project and the planning “inputs” (what must be known)

A schedule can only be built after key inputs are understood. If these are missing, exam answers often lose marks because they jump straight to Gantt charts without showing reasoning.

Core planning inputs typically include:

Project scope & deliverables (what the project must produce)
Assumptions (e.g., availability of resources, working days)
Constraints (e.g., legal deadlines, procurement lead times)
Stakeholders & approvals (who signs off and when)
Requirements affecting activities (e.g., testing standards)
Available resources (team members, equipment, budget limits)
Governance (reporting cycle, change control procedure)

CUT exam-style emphasis: If a question mentions a deadline, resource scarcity, or phased delivery, your schedule must reflect those factors—either directly (through constraints) or indirectly (through assumptions and contingency buffers).

1.2 Develop a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS): the exam “must-have” skill

A Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) breaks the project scope into manageable components. For scheduling, WBS is essential because you schedule activities that correspond to work packages (and milestones).

Typical WBS logic (top-down):

Define major deliverables (Level 1)
Break each deliverable into sub-deliverables (Level 2)
Break down to work packages suitable for estimating and assigning responsibility (Level 3+)

WBS to scheduling translation

Work package → Activity(ies)
Milestone → activity or summary milestone

Example: Simple student project schedule context

Imagine CUT students building a “Student Outreach Event” project:

Deliverable 1: Event planning
- Work package: Venue booking
- Work package: Speaker confirmations
Deliverable 2: Marketing and communication
- Work package: Design posters
- Work package: Social media rollout
Deliverable 3: Event execution
- Work package: Setup and logistics
- Work package: Event running
- Work package: Post-event evaluation

In an exam, you would not just list these—you would show that each work package becomes a planned activity with duration and dependencies.

1.3 Identify activities: from WBS to an activity list

After WBS, you create an activity list. Each activity should have:

A name that reflects the work outcome
An owner/responsibility (role or responsible party)
An estimated duration
Start/end conditions (what must happen before/after)
Inputs/outputs (documents, materials, approvals)
Optional: activity type (work, milestone, decision, procurement)

Activity duration: avoid “wishful” estimates

Exams often test the concept that durations must be based on estimates, not guesses.

Common estimation concepts you should be able to explain:

Single-point estimate (e.g., 5 days)
Range estimate (optimistic/most likely/pessimistic)
Contingency logic (buffers for uncertainty)
Historical data and analogous estimates

1.4 Define sequencing and dependencies (what comes before what)

Once activities exist, you define relationships/dependencies:

Finish-to-Start (FS): predecessor finishes before successor starts (most common)
Start-to-Start (SS): successor can start when predecessor starts
Finish-to-Finish (FF): successor finishes when predecessor finishes
Start-to-Finish (SF): rare and usually not recommended; exam may mention it but expect you to know it’s uncommon

Exam-ready phrasing for dependencies

“Activity B cannot start until Activity A is completed” → FS dependency
“Activity C begins as soon as Activity A starts” → SS dependency

1.5 Milestones, deliverables, and schedule logic

A milestone is a point in time signifying completion of a major phase or deliverable. Milestones are essential in exam answers because they communicate “progress” to examiners.

Examples of milestones:

“Project kickoff completed”
“Requirements approved”
“Prototype delivered”
“User acceptance testing (UAT) passed”
“Final sign-off received”

A strong exam response links milestones to the schedule structure: milestones should be at the end of summary activities or key work packages.

1.6 Scheduling assumptions: the hidden mark driver

You can gain or lose marks based on how realistic your schedule assumptions are. A typical exam scenario might include:

Work is only done 5 days per week (Monday–Friday)
Team members can handle only one major task at a time
Procurement takes two weeks for ordering and receiving
Stakeholder approval takes 5 working days

Your schedule must reflect these assumptions. If the question says “assume 5 working days per week,” you must apply it consistently in calculations.

2) Scheduling Tools and Techniques: Gantt Charts, Networks, CPM/PERT, and Milestone Control

University project management exams in South Africa frequently ask about the strengths, limitations, and appropriate use-cases for scheduling tools. The best way to score is to show both conceptual understanding and the correct technique for the scenario.

2.1 Gantt charts: the most recognized scheduling artifact

A Gantt chart displays activities on a time axis (usually horizontal bars). It is easy to interpret and widely used in practical project management.

What examiners like to see about Gantt charts:

Clear start and finish dates per activity
Dependencies shown (sometimes via arrows or notes)
A visible milestone indicator
Basic resource considerations, where applicable (sometimes color-coded)

Advantages

Easy to communicate status
Good for tracking progress against planned dates
Simple for stakeholders without deep scheduling knowledge

Limitations

May hide complex dependency logic
Harder to determine the true critical path without a network model
Doesn’t automatically show float/criticality unless combined with CPM logic

Exam tip: If asked “which tool is best for complex dependency-based planning?” you typically answer network methods (CPM) rather than a plain Gantt chart alone.

2.2 Network diagrams: why they matter (precedence and criticality)

Network diagrams show relationships between activities. They provide the structural foundation for:

Critical Path Method (CPM)
Project evaluation and review technique (PERT)
Float/slack analysis

Two common network styles:

Activity-on-Node (AON): nodes represent activities (commonly used for CPM in modern software)
Activity-on-Arrow (AOA): arrows represent activities (historical and more complex)

Most exam contexts accept AON drawings as the standard.

2.3 Critical Path Method (CPM): understanding earliest/latest times

CPM identifies the critical path, the longest-duration path through the network that determines the project’s earliest completion time.

For each activity, CPM calculates:

ES (Early Start)
EF (Early Finish)
LS (Late Start)
LF (Late Finish)

Then:

Total Float (Slack) = LS − ES = LF − EF
Critical activities are those with zero float (or near zero within rounding assumptions)

Core CPM logic steps (exam-ready)

Forward pass:
- Set ES for start activity (often 0)
- ES(successor) = max(EF(predecessors)) for FS dependencies
- EF = ES + duration
Backward pass:
- Set LF for end activity to project duration (or to the latest allowed finish)
- LF(predecessor) = min(LS(successors)) under FS dependencies
- LS = LF − duration
Calculate float and identify critical path (activities with float = 0)

Small worked example (for exam reasoning)

Suppose a project has:

A: duration 3 days
B: duration 4 days (depends FS on A)
C: duration 2 days (depends FS on A)
D: duration 5 days (depends FS on B and C)

Compute ES/EF:

A: ES 0, EF 3
B: ES 3, EF 7
C: ES 3, EF 5
D: ES max(EF(B)=7, EF(C)=5)=7, EF 12

Project duration = 12 days.

Backward pass:

D: LF 12, LS 7
B: LF min(LS(D)=7)=7, LS 3
C: LF 7, LS 5? (Wait: LS(C) = LF − dur = 7 − 2 = 5)
Now floats:
A: LS 0? For A, successors are B and C: LS(A) = min(LS(B)=3, LS(C)=5) = 3? But careful with dependencies. Usually A’s float computed from EF/ES:
- A ES=0, EF=3
- LS(A)=min(LS(B)=3, LS(C)=5)=3
- Float(A) = 3 − 0 = 3
  So A has float 3 days.
B float = LS 3 − ES 3 = 0 → critical
C float = LS 5 − ES 3 = 2 → non-critical
D float = 7 − 7 = 0 → critical

Critical path: A → B → D (duration 3 + 4 + 5 = 12). In network terms, C is a parallel path with float.

Examiners like clarity: show forward/backward pass and float conclusions.

2.4 PERT: managing uncertainty with optimistic, most likely, pessimistic estimates

When durations are uncertain, PERT uses three estimates:

Optimistic (a): shortest realistic time
Most Likely (m): best estimate assuming normal conditions
Pessimistic (b): longest realistic time

Then expected duration:
[
t_e = \frac{a + 4m + b}{6}
]

PERT also estimates variance:
[
\sigma^2 = \left(\frac{b-a}{6}\right)^2
]

When to use PERT

Research & development
Unclear procurement conditions
Technology trials
Activities with high uncertainty

When CPM is typically sufficient

Routine construction/known processes with reliable estimates
Clear resource plans and stable conditions

Exam-ready argument: PERT is better when you must justify probabilistic completion estimates; CPM is better when schedules are deterministic.

2.5 Resource-constrained scheduling (basic awareness) and why float can be misleading

In real projects, even non-critical activities may cause delays if resources are constrained. A schedule built with CPM assumes unlimited resources, so float is not always “free.”

Resource constraints effects:

Two critical activities compete for the same person/equipment
Float exists in CPM but actual schedule delays occur because work cannot start when planned
Reallocation or crashing is needed

Even if the CUT module focuses primarily on core CPM/PERT, exam answers benefit from acknowledging resource constraints.

2.6 Milestone planning and progress measurement

A schedule must support monitoring. In project control:

Progress measurement uses milestone completion and percentage completion rules
Variance analysis compares planned vs actual start/finish times
Change control updates the baseline schedule

Typical exam scenario: “The prototype is completed 3 days late. What should the project manager do?”
A strong answer uses:

Identify whether the delay affects critical path (criticality)
Update schedule and baseline
Analyze causes (resource, scope change, estimate error, external dependency)
Decide corrective action:
- Fast-tracking
- Crashing
- Re-sequencing
- Adjusting buffers

2.7 Fast-tracking and crashing: schedule compression methods

Fast-tracking

Change sequence to start later activities earlier even before predecessor work fully finishes
Risk: increased rework, quality problems if dependencies are not truly ready

Crashing

Shorten activity duration by adding resources or overtime
Costs rise
Limited by practical constraints (cannot crash beyond minimum feasible duration)

Example numbers for exam reasoning

If an activity normally takes 10 days at $20,000 cost, and crashing it to 8 days costs $26,000:

Time reduced by 2 days (saves 2 days)
Cost increased by $6,000
You can compute a simple cost slope:
Cost increase per day = $6,000 / 2 = $3,000/day

Exams may ask: “Is crashing cost-effective?”
Answer depends on whether the saved time reduces overall project cost or avoids penalties (which may be stated in the question).

3) Estimating Durations, Sequencing with Logic, and Building a Robust Exam-Quality Schedule

This section develops the “how to build a schedule” skill from scratch: estimating durations, converting to activity logic, constructing a network, computing CPM, and validating results. It also addresses common exam traps.

3.1 Duration estimation techniques and how to justify them

In planning and scheduling questions, your mark depends on whether you provide a credible method.

Common duration estimation approaches:

Analogous estimating: use historical similar projects
Parametric estimating: use measurable drivers (e.g., hours per unit)
Three-point estimating (PERT): use a, m, b for uncertain tasks
Expert judgment: consultations
Bottom-up estimating: estimate tasks then roll up

Example: Parametric estimation applied to “report writing”

Suppose writing a technical report requires:

40 hours of drafting
10 hours editing and review
A writer’s effective productivity: 5 hours/day (includes internal breaks)
Then:
Drafting duration = 40 / 5 = 8 days
Editing/review duration = 10 / 5 = 2 days
Total = 10 days (if sequential). If parallel editing and drafting is allowed, sequencing changes.

3.2 Estimating with uncertainty: a full PERT mini-example

Take a procurement activity with:

Optimistic a = 6 days
Most likely m = 9 days
Pessimistic b = 14 days

Expected time:
[
t_e = \frac{6 + 4(9) + 14}{6} = \frac{6+36+14}{6}=\frac{56}{6}=9.33\text{ days}
]

Variance:
[
\sigma^2 = \left(\frac{14-6}{6}\right)^2 = \left(\frac{8}{6}\right)^2 = (1.333)^2 \approx 1.778
]

Standard deviation:
[
\sigma = \sqrt{1.778}\approx 1.33
]

In an exam, you can interpret variance: higher variance means more uncertainty and suggests buffer or risk handling.

3.3 Activity sequencing rules: precedence constraints vs assumptions

Sequencing can be tricky. You must distinguish:

Precedence constraints (must happen before)
Resource constraints (cannot happen at same time due to limited people)
Lag times (e.g., curing time, approvals delay)
Leads (uncommon but could be included conceptually)

Common exam trap: confusing dependencies

A frequent mistake: “Because we prefer it, activity B should start after A.”
But in CPM, preference does not equal dependency. You need a logical justification:

A produces output needed for B (true FS dependency), or
A begins and enables B in parallel (SS), or
B requires A to finish (FS).

3.4 Construct an AON network: ordering activities logically

When building a network diagram:

Use nodes for activities
Draw arrows/lines for dependencies
Ensure each activity has at least one predecessor (except start) and one successor (except end), depending on network conventions

Validation checks in exams:

No “orphan” activities with no logical path from start
Start and finish exist
Cycles are absent (activity cannot depend on itself indirectly)

3.5 Forward pass and backward pass: do arithmetic carefully

In CPM calculations, small arithmetic errors are common and costly. A reliable method:

Forward pass method

Start node: ES = 0
For each activity:
- ES = max(EF of all predecessors)
- EF = ES + duration

Backward pass method

Set end activity:
- LF = project duration (or specified latest finish)
For each predecessor:
- LF = min(LS of successors)
- LS = LF − duration

Then float:

Float = LS − ES

3.6 A complete sample scheduling question (CPM worked example)

Consider a CUT-style scheduling scenario (a project with multiple deliverables):

Activities (with FS dependencies):

A (dur 4) : start → finish
B (dur 3) : A → B
C (dur 5) : A → C
D (dur 2) : B → D
E (dur 4) : C → E
F (dur 3) : D and E → F (FS on both)

Compute CPM.

Forward pass

Start:

A: ES 0, EF 4

ES = EF(A)=4 → EF = 4+3 = 7

ES = EF(A)=4 → EF = 4+5 = 9

depends on B
ES = EF(B)=7 → EF = 7+2 = 9

depends on C
ES = EF(C)=9 → EF = 9+4 = 13

depends on D and E
ES = max(EF(D)=9, EF(E)=13) = 13
EF = 13+3 = 16

Project duration = 16 time units (days/weeks depending on the question).

Backward pass

End:

F: LF 16 → LS 16−3 = 13

D is predecessor of F
LF = LS(F)=13
LS = 13−2 = 11

E is predecessor of F
LF = LS(F)=13
LS = 13−4 = 9

B (predecessor of D):

Successor is D only
LF = LS(D)=11
LS = 11−3 = 8

C (predecessor of E):

Successor is E only
LF = LS(E)=9
LS = 9−5 = 4

A (predecessors for B and C):

Successors include B and C
LF = min(LS(B)=8, LS(C)=4) = 4
LS = 4−4 = 0

Floats

A: ES 0, LS 0 → Float 0 → critical
B: ES 4, LS 8 → Float 4 (non-critical)
C: ES 4, LS 4 → Float 0 → critical
D: ES 7, LS 11 → Float 4 (non-critical)
E: ES 9, LS 9 → Float 0 → critical
F: ES 13, LS 13 → Float 0 → critical

Critical path(s):

One critical path is A → C → E → F with duration 4+5+4+3=16
Another would exist if there were zero float alternatives, but here only A, C, E, F are critical.

Exam conclusion phrasing: “The critical path is A–C–E–F, which determines the project completion time of 16 days. Activities on non-critical paths (B and D) have total float of 4 days.”

3.7 Converting CPM to a Gantt chart (how to present the answer)

After CPM identifies earliest start/finish times, you can present a Gantt chart with:

Planned start = ES
Planned finish = EF

For the sample:

A planned: 0–4
B planned: 4–7
C planned: 4–9
D planned: 7–9
E planned: 9–13
F planned: 13–16

You can show milestones:

milestone at EF of C (9)
milestone at project completion EF of F (16)

In exams, you may be asked to “draw a network and identify critical path”—or “construct a schedule and identify float.” Presenting a Gantt chart plus critical path marks earns credibility.

3.8 Common exam traps and how to avoid them

Forgetting max in ES: ES for successors must be the maximum EF of all predecessors (for FS).
Forgetting min in LF: LF for predecessors must be the minimum LS of successors.
Mixing duration units: ensure all durations use the same time unit.
Ignoring “lag” times if included in the question: lag changes ES/EF relationships.
Assuming float means “no risk”: resources and constraints can remove float.
Not explaining outcomes: examiners want interpretation, not only numbers.

4) Schedule Baselines, Monitoring, Variance Analysis, and Change Control (Scheduling Control)

A schedule is a plan, but the exam often tests whether you understand schedule control: what happens when actual progress differs from planned progress. In project management modules at universities including CUT, students are expected to connect scheduling to monitoring and corrective action.

4.1 Establish a schedule baseline: what it means and why it matters

A baseline schedule is the approved version of the project schedule against which performance is measured. It typically includes:

Approved activity dates
Critical path information
Milestones
Resource and cost assumptions (sometimes linked)

Why baseline matters:

Enables objective measurement of variance
Supports change control and governance
Provides audit trail in project documentation

Exam questions might ask: “Why can’t we continuously change the plan without recording changes?”
A good answer:

Uncontrolled changes destroy comparability between planned and actual
Stakeholders lose trust
Contractual and compliance implications

4.2 Track actual progress: planned vs actual (and how to measure correctly)

Monitoring requires:

Actual start/finish times for completed activities
Percent complete for ongoing activities (with caution)
Milestone attainment
Updated estimates for remaining work (re-estimation)

Percent complete pitfalls

“50% complete” is ambiguous unless defined by measurable deliverables.
Exams favor milestone-based or deliverable-based progress tracking.

4.3 Variance analysis: schedule variance and interpretation

A simple schedule variance concept:

Schedule variance = EV (earned value) vs PV (planned value) in earned value management (EVM)
Or compare planned vs actual dates directly for basic scheduling control

Even if CUT’s module doesn’t require full EVM calculations, exam questions often ask:

whether a delay is on the critical path
what the schedule impact is

Criticality-based interpretation

If delay occurs on a non-critical path, it may be absorbed by float.
If delay affects critical path activities, it delays project completion (unless mitigated).

4.4 Recalculate schedule and update the critical path

When actual dates deviate:

Update activity progress (actual start/finish)
Recompute ES/EF and LS/LF for remaining activities
Identify whether critical path changed
Update forecast completion date

This is an exam-friendly sequence.

Example interpretation (without heavy recalculation)

Suppose in a CPM network, activity D is non-critical with float 4 days. If D is delayed by 2 days:

It may still finish within its float.
Project completion might remain unchanged.
If D is delayed by 5 days:
It exceeds float → becomes critical, potentially delaying the project.

4.5 Corrective and preventive actions

When schedule variance is detected, two categories exist:

Corrective actions

Fix immediate issues causing delay
Examples:
- Reassign resources to critical activities
- Remove blockers
- Negotiate revised sequences for dependencies
- Increase oversight for quality issues

Preventive actions

Reduce probability of recurrence
Examples:
- Improve estimation methodology
- Add buffer time based on uncertainty (risk response)
- Strengthen stakeholder engagement to reduce approval delays

4.6 Change control: update schedule without destroying integrity

Schedule changes happen due to:

Scope change (new requirements)
Design changes
Stakeholder decision delays
Procurement changes
Quality rework

A good exam answer describes a formal change process:

Identify change request
Assess impacts (time, cost, scope, risk)
Approve/deny via governance
Update baseline only after approval (or create a revised baseline depending on policy)
Communicate changes to stakeholders

4.7 Fast-tracking and crashing in schedule control: when and how

Schedule control links to compression:

If the project is late, and there is a deadline pressure, managers may fast-track or crash.
If tasks are non-critical but have high float, crashing might be less effective than reallocating resources to critical activities.

Cost-time trade-off reasoning (exam expected)

Crashing increases direct costs
Fast-tracking can increase rework/quality risk
Therefore, the decision depends on:
Deadline urgency
Penalties for late completion
Risk tolerance
Probability of rework

4.8 Monitoring cadence and reporting structure

In many South African university project management courses, schedules are discussed alongside:

Weekly progress meetings
Monthly status reports
Stage-gate reviews at milestones

A typical exam scenario might ask: “How would you report schedule performance?”
A strong answer includes:

Planned vs actual milestone status
Critical path activity status
Forecast completion date
Key risks impacting schedule
Decisions/actions required

5) Risk, Uncertainty, and Scheduling Under Real Constraints (Resource Levels, Buffers, and Exam Synthesis for CUT)

Real projects rarely follow ideal CPM assumptions. The final exam cluster typically expects you to integrate planning/scheduling with risk management and constraints. In a CUT Project Management context, the best exam responses explain how risk affects schedule estimates and how buffers or contingency are used.

5.1 Scheduling risk: where delays actually come from

Common schedule risk sources:

External dependencies: supplier delays, regulatory approvals
Resource constraints: key staff unavailable, equipment breakdown
Scope volatility: new requirements midstream
Technical uncertainty: prototype failures, rework cycles
Change in stakeholder decisions: late approvals, late feedback
Quality issues: testing failures, compliance rejections

Exam nuance: Differentiate between:

Risks that directly affect activity durations
Risks that affect dependencies (e.g., approvals delay means successors can’t start)

5.2 Buffering strategies: contingency vs schedule contingency

Two terms often appear in project planning discussions:

Contingency reserve: budget/time reserve to respond to identified risks (often managed through change control)
Schedule buffer: additional time inserted to protect project completion (sometimes linked to risk response planning)

In scheduling under uncertainty, you can justify buffers using PERT variance or historical data.

5.3 Using PERT and probabilistic completion (conceptual exam value)

If a question includes “probability of meeting deadline,” you can use PERT concepts:

Identify expected duration of critical path
Estimate standard deviation of critical path
Use a normal approximation to estimate probability of finishing by a deadline

Even if your exam doesn’t ask for full probability computations, it might ask:

why PERT provides probabilistic outputs
why CPM assumes deterministic durations

5.4 Resource levelling vs time-based scheduling: why the same CPM schedule may not work

CPM provides theoretical earliest starts with infinite resources. When resources are limited:

you may need resource levelling
schedule dates shift even if logical dependencies remain

Resource levelling examples:

A single supervisor must review multiple deliverables; they can’t start all simultaneously.
A machine can process only one batch at a time, forcing sequencing beyond natural dependency logic.

In an exam scenario:

If the question hints at limited staff, you should mention that CPM float may not represent actual freedom.
You can explain that resource constraints override or modify effective sequencing.

5.5 A cohesive case study: scheduling a “Small Engineering Retrofit” project under CUT-style constraints

Consider a hypothetical project typical of an operations/engineering environment (often included in CUT-style scheduling questions). The project goal: retrofit a small facility workflow with updated wiring and safety compliance.

Project activities:

A: Site inspection (dur 3 days)
B: Electrical design sign-off (dur 4 days; depends on A)
C: Procurement of components (dur 6 days; depends on B)
D: Installation (dur 5 days; depends on C)
E: Safety testing & compliance approval (dur 3 days; depends on D)
F: Documentation and handover (dur 2 days; depends on E)

Dependencies: FS chain A→B→C→D→E→F.

Assume CPM yields project duration:

total = 3 + 4 + 6 + 5 + 3 + 2 = 23 days

Now add real constraints:

The compliance inspector is available only twice per month.
The installation (D) sometimes requires rework if components arrive damaged.
Procurement lead time varies between 5 and 9 days.

How risk and constraints affect scheduling decisions

Procurement (C) becomes uncertain → use PERT concept:
- a = 5, m = 6.5, b = 9 (example range)
- expected time might increase slightly and variance indicates uncertainty.
Inspector availability is a constraint:
- Even if E is ready early, approval may not be immediate.
- In scheduling terms, this creates an external “resource calendar constraint” or enforced lag.

Exam-friendly conclusion:

The theoretical CPM duration (23 days) is not necessarily feasible.
Effective schedule must include:
- risk buffers for C and rework probability affecting D
- calendar constraints for E approval

5.6 Exam synthesis: linking scheduling with risk response options

In integrated project management exam questions, you often must match risk response to scheduling outcomes:

Avoid: change design or process to remove uncertain dependency (often reduces risk but may increase scope/time)
Mitigate: use more reliable suppliers, add quality checks before installation
Transfer: contract with penalties to shift risk to vendor (may increase cost)
Accept: plan contingency reserve and monitor closely

Then relate to schedule:

mitigation can reduce expected durations and variance
acceptance requires contingency/time buffer and frequent monitoring
avoidance can change dependencies (altering critical path)

5.7 Practical schedule adjustment reasoning under deadline pressure

When a project is behind schedule and the deadline is firm:

Step 1: Identify whether the delay is on critical path
Step 2: If on critical path, consider:
- crashing critical activities
- fast-tracking if dependencies allow
- reducing scope (if permitted)
Step 3: If off critical path:
- evaluate whether float is consumed
- consider reallocation or schedule recovery without unnecessary cost

Cost-effectiveness argument structure for exams

Use a structured response:

Compute time saved by crashing/fast-tracking (days)
Determine additional cost (and possibly risk)
Compare to benefits:
- avoiding penalties
- maintaining customer credibility
- preventing cascading delays in downstream phases

Even when exact costs are not given, examiners appreciate structured reasoning.

5.8 Preparing for common CUT-style assessment formats: how to “write the answer”

Although exam formats vary, students often face:

short-answer questions (definitions and comparisons)
computation questions (CPM/PERT)
application questions (interpretation and corrective actions)
scenario questions (build schedule, identify critical path, suggest interventions)

High-scoring writing checklist:

Define key terms (WBS, milestone, dependency, float)
Show method steps (forward pass/backward pass, ES/EF rules)
Provide computations clearly
State conclusions in plain language:
- “critical path determines completion”
- “activity has X days float”
- “delay affects completion only if float is exceeded”
Add practical implications:
- monitoring cadence
- schedule update and baseline
- change control actions

5.9 Quick reference: core formulas and definitions (exam muscle memory)

Use this as a mental checklist during revision:

CPM

ES(successor) = max(EF(predecessors)) for FS
EF = ES + duration
LF(predecessor) = min(LS(successors))
LS = LF − duration
Float = LS − ES = LF − EF
Critical activities: float = 0

PERT

Expected time: ( t_e = \frac{a + 4m + b}{6} )
Variance: ( \sigma^2 = \left(\frac{b-a}{6}\right)^2 )

Schedule control

Update progress
Recalculate remaining schedule
Identify critical path changes
Apply corrective/preventive actions
Use change control to update baseline

Concluding Exam-Ready Integration

Project planning and scheduling in a CUT-oriented project management module is ultimately about disciplined transformation: scope → WBS → activities → logic/dependencies → estimates → network → schedule → control. Mastery is demonstrated not only by drawing Gantt charts, but by correctly applying CPM to identify critical paths, using PERT concepts to handle uncertainty, and explaining schedule control practices when real-world variance occurs. When your answers consistently connect schedule calculations to monitoring, risk handling, and change control, you align with the typical marking expectations of university assessments in South Africa for project management learning outcomes.