Project Planning and Control Techniques (MANCOSA) Notes

Project Planning and Control Techniques sit at the centre of effective project management practice: they connect an organisation’s objectives to day-to-day delivery through scope definition, scheduling, budgeting, risk management, performance measurement and corrective action. In the MANCOSA context, exam questions often test not only definitions, but also your ability to apply tools such as the work breakdown structure (WBS), Gantt and network diagrams, critical path method (CPM), earned value management (EVM) and quality/risk controls to realistic scenarios. These notes are written to support exam preparation and assignment writing, with particular attention to South African university language and expectations, including typical MANCOSA-style phrasing alongside concepts that also appear in modules like Project Management and Operations/Quality Management in South African higher education.

MANCOSA Project Planning and Control: From Scope to Schedule to Performance (PM)

This section establishes the “planning backbone” of the project lifecycle, explaining how project managers move from objectives to a control-ready plan. In many MANCOSA assessments, you are expected to show that you understand planning as a structured process that produces measurable baselines. Control then compares actual performance against those baselines and drives corrective action.

What “Planning and Control” Means in Project Management

Planning is the process of deciding what work will be done, how it will be done, who will do it, when it will be done, and how much resources it will consume. Control is the process of tracking actual progress and performance, comparing it to the plan, and taking action when variances occur.

A useful way to remember the integration is:

1. Plan (create baselines: scope, schedule, cost, quality, risk)
2. Execute (perform the planned work)
3. Measure (collect actual data: time, cost, output, defects, risks)
4. Compare (compute variance and performance indices)
5. Correct (adjust forecasts, re-plan, change control, mitigation)

Control techniques are not “afterthoughts”; they are designed into the plan. For instance, if you do not define measurable deliverables and acceptance criteria, you cannot accurately determine whether a task is complete. Similarly, if you do not define how you will measure progress (e.g., % complete rules), earned value will not be meaningful.

The Project Baseline: Scope, Schedule and Cost

A baseline is the approved plan against which performance is measured. Common baselines are:

• Scope baseline: defined deliverables, WBS, acceptance criteria
• Schedule baseline: approved schedule model (activities, durations, dependencies)
• Cost baseline: budget by work package/activity, often time-phased

In exam scenarios, you may see wording such as “the project has drifted from the baseline” or “the schedule baseline was updated after change control.” These imply that baselines are governed through project change management.

Baseline components you should be able to list:

• WBS dictionary and deliverable definitions
• Activity list, dependencies, critical path
• Resource plan (labour/equipment), cost estimates
• Budget allocation (often by work package)
• Risk register baseline (initial risk assumptions and response plans)
• Quality plan baseline (inspection/acceptance rules)

Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) and Work Packages

The WBS is a hierarchical decomposition of the project scope into smaller, manageable components. In typical exam questions, you may be asked to “construct a WBS for a project” or “explain the purpose of a WBS.”

Key points to include:

• The WBS ensures completeness of scope (nothing important is left out).
• It enables cost and schedule planning at a detailed level.
• It creates control points through work packages.

A work package is a level of the WBS sufficiently detailed to allow:

• planning work content,
• assigning responsibility,
• estimating cost,
• measuring progress,
• monitoring performance.

Example: WBS for a Campus Computer Lab Upgrade

Consider a project to upgrade a university computer lab. A simplified WBS could look like:

1. Project Management
   • 1.1 Kick-off and planning
   • 1.2 Reporting and stakeholder management
2. Procurement
   • 2.1 Equipment specification and quotes
   • 2.2 Ordering and delivery tracking
3. Hardware Installation
   • 3.1 Workstations setup
   • 3.2 Networking configuration
4. Software and Configuration
   • 4.1 OS and drivers installation
   • 4.2 Lab management tools configuration
5. Testing and Acceptance
   • 5.1 Functional testing
   • 5.2 User acceptance and sign-off
6. Training and Handover
   • 6.1 Staff training
   • 6.2 Final documentation handover

If an exam asks you to identify where control measurements happen, you would point to work packages like:

• 3.1 Workstations setup (measured by number of stations configured)
• 5.1 Functional testing (measured by test cases passed)
• 4.2 Lab tools configured (measured by system readiness)

Defining Activities, Sequencing and Dependencies

After establishing the WBS, you translate scope into activities. Activity definition answers: “What actions must occur to create deliverables?”

Activities then require:

• Sequencing: which activities follow which?
• Dependencies: relationships like finish-to-start (FS), start-to-start (SS), finish-to-finish (FF), start-to-finish (SF).
• Constraints and assumptions: e.g., hardware delivery dates, room availability.

Common dependency types to mention:

• Mandatory dependencies: inherent requirements (e.g., networking must be configured after cabling)
• Discretionary dependencies: based on best practice preferences
• External dependencies: waiting on a supplier or regulator

Scheduling Tools: Gantt Charts, Network Diagrams and CPM

A Gantt chart is widely used because it visually shows start and finish dates and highlights overlaps. However, it is not enough for deep control decisions on its own. For that, you often need network logic and critical path calculations.

Network Diagram and the Critical Path Method (CPM)

The CPM technique identifies:

• the critical path (the longest path through the network),
• earliest start/finish and latest start/finish times,
• float/slack (time an activity can slip without affecting project end date).

For exam purposes, you should be able to explain:

• Critical activities have zero (or near-zero) float.
• Delays on critical path activities directly threaten the completion date.
• Non-critical activities can sometimes slip within float without immediate impact.

Illustration (Conceptual, Not Over-Formula)

Suppose a project has three paths:

• Path A takes 20 days
• Path B takes 18 days
• Path C takes 22 days

The critical path is Path C at 22 days. If any activity on Path C is delayed, it increases the overall project duration unless compensating action is taken (e.g., crashing or fast-tracking).

Resource and Cost Planning: Estimation and Budgeting

Cost planning translates activity requirements into money. Typical planning steps include:

1. Estimate activity costs (labour, materials, equipment, subcontractors)
2. Develop the cost budget (time-phased budget to create a baseline)
3. Resource allocation (ensure resources are not overloaded beyond capacity)

Estimation Methods (General Exam Coverage)

While specific MANCOSA exam papers might not require deep mathematical derivations, you should still recognize categories:

• Analogous estimation: use historical data from similar projects
• Parametric estimation: use statistical relationships (e.g., cost per unit)
• Bottom-up estimation: sum estimates of work packages
• Three-point estimation (more advanced): optimistic, most likely, pessimistic

Quality and Acceptance Criteria as Control Enablers

Planning must define quality standards. Quality control is not “inspection only”; it is built into planning through:

• standards (what “good” means),
• processes (how deliverables meet those standards),
• measurement (how you confirm compliance),
• responsibilities (who checks and who approves).

In many assignments, students lose marks by focusing only on schedule and cost. Projects fail when quality is unclear. A strong planning document includes:

• quality metrics,
• inspection frequency,
• acceptance thresholds,
• evidence required for sign-off.

MANCOSA Scheduling, Risk and Change Control: Managing Uncertainty and Preventing Drift (PM)

Project control fails when uncertainty is ignored or when changes are unmanaged. This section focuses on risk planning, monitoring and mitigation, and on change control mechanisms. In exam contexts, you should link risk and change: many changes originate from risks materialising or from environment shifts.

Risk Management as a Planning and Control Technique

A risk is an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative effect on project objectives. Planning does not eliminate risk; it prepares the project to respond.

The Risk Register and Risk Breakdown

A risk register typically includes:

• risk description,
• probability,
• impact assessment,
• risk rating (often probability × impact),
• response strategy,
• owner,
• triggers,
• contingency actions.

Risk categories may include:

• technical risks (system performance),
• schedule risks (delivery delays),
• cost risks (price increases),
• operational risks (staff shortages),
• external risks (regulatory changes).

Example: Risk Register Snippet for the Computer Lab Project

For the computer lab upgrade, sample risks could include:

• Supplier delay risk

  • Probability: medium
  • Impact: high (affects installation schedule)
  • Response: select alternative supplier, include delivery buffer, track lead times
  • Trigger: delivery date slips beyond agreed window

• Software compatibility risk

  • Probability: low to medium
  • Impact: medium to high (affects testing/acceptance)
  • Response: compatibility testing early, use standard images, maintain fallback plan

• Network configuration complexity risk

  • Probability: medium
  • Impact: medium
  • Response: conduct pilot configuration, document templates, allocate specialist resource

If exam questions ask for “risk monitoring,” you should mention continuous tracking using triggers and regular reviews, not only initial identification.

Monitoring and Controlling Risks

Risk control is the process of:

• monitoring identified risks,
• identifying new risks,
• evaluating the effectiveness of responses,
• updating the risk register.

Key risk control practices include:

• regular risk review meetings,
• tracking triggers (e.g., “if delivery date slips by X days, activate contingency Y”),
• updating probability/impact estimates based on new information,
• documenting lessons learned.

Contingency Planning and Response Types

Risk responses include:

• Avoid (eliminate the risk cause)
• Mitigate (reduce probability/impact)
• Transfer (shift risk to another party—e.g., insurance or contract terms)
• Accept (acknowledge risk, prepare contingency reserve)

You should also distinguish between contingency reserves and management reserves:

• Contingency reserve: budget reserved for identified risks (planned responses)
• Management reserve: budget reserved for unknown/uncertain risks

In assignments, examiners often look for clarity: what reserve is used for what? Linking the reserve type to risk category strengthens your answer.

Change Control: Preventing Plan Instability

Projects rarely proceed without change. Change control is the system that manages changes to scope, schedule, cost or quality baselines.

A typical change control process includes:

1. Change request submitted with details
2. Impact assessment (schedule, cost, scope, quality)
3. Review/approval by appropriate authority (change control board or project sponsor)
4. Implementation if approved
5. Update baselines and documents
6. Communicate changes to stakeholders

Impact Assessment: What You Must Evaluate

When assessing change, you should consider:

• scope impact (what deliverables change?)
• schedule impact (what tasks slip or accelerate?)
• cost impact (labour/material cost differences, overhead impacts)
• quality impact (does the change affect standards?)
• risk impact (new risks introduced; existing risks changed)
• resource impacts (availability of key skills)

Example: Change Request in the Lab Project

Suppose a client requests:

• additional computers and upgraded graphics cards.

Impact assessment would involve:

• procurement timeline changes (longer lead time),
• additional installation time,
• testing expansion (more workstations),
• budget adjustment (equipment cost difference),
• potential risk increase (compatibility or power/cooling constraints).

If approval is granted, the project baselines must be updated. If not, the request might be rejected or deferred into a phased plan.

Managing Baseline Drift with Forecasting

Baseline drift occurs when the project deviates from planned performance without formal approval of changes. Effective control includes:

• variance analysis (schedule/cost),
• trend forecasting,
• decisions on corrective actions (re-planning, reallocation, scope adjustments).

Forecasting answers: “Given current performance, when will we finish and what will it cost?”

Even if your course content does not require advanced EVM formula memorisation, MANCOSA exam questions often expect you to use earned value concepts or at least describe the logic of measuring planned vs achieved progress.

Integrating Risk and Change Control

Risk materialisation frequently leads to change. For example:

• supplier delay (risk) leads to schedule acceleration requests (change),
• software compatibility risk leads to rework (scope or quality change),
• stakeholder requirement changes (could be a risk as well—requirements volatility).

A strong answer explains that:

• risks should be monitored continuously,
• changes should be assessed using structured impact analysis,
• both should feed updates into baselines and control metrics.

Practical Control Actions: When Variance Appears

Once variance is detected, corrective actions could include:

• Schedule compression: crash/fast-track decisions
• Re-sequencing: change activity order while respecting dependencies
• Resource reallocation: assign additional team members to critical tasks
• Scope adjustment: remove lower-priority features (with formal change approval)
• Quality improvement: address root causes of defects that are causing rework
• Risk response activation: use contingency plans

A common exam trap is listing actions without linking them to the reason for variance. For full marks, mention both:

• what variance is observed (e.g., time overrun on installation),
• the plausible root cause (e.g., network issues leading to rework),
• the corrective action aligned to that cause (e.g., allocate specialist for pilot and increase test coverage early).

MANCOSA Earned Value and Performance Control: Measuring Progress That Matters (PM)

This section focuses on performance measurement and control techniques—especially Earned Value Management (EVM). EVM is frequently tested because it integrates scope, schedule and cost performance into a consistent method. Many South African universities also teach variants of EVM within project management modules, and MANCOSA assessments often expect a structured explanation of how EVM works.

Why Simple Progress Tracking Fails

A basic progress update might say:

• “We spent R500,000 so far and completed 40%.”

That can be misleading because:

• spending could be high but progress low,
• completion percentages could be optimistic,
• schedule delays may increase costs.

EVM resolves this by comparing three key values for a specific time period:

• Planned Value (PV): budgeted cost of work scheduled by a given date
• Earned Value (EV): budgeted cost of work actually performed
• Actual Cost (AC): actual cost spent for work performed by that date

These three values enable objective performance interpretation.

Core EVM Metrics You Should Know

From PV, EV and AC, you compute performance measures.

1) Schedule Variance (SV)

• SV = EV − PV
  Interpretation:
• SV < 0: behind schedule
• SV = 0: on schedule
• SV > 0: ahead of schedule

2) Cost Variance (CV)

• CV = EV − AC
  Interpretation:
• CV < 0: over budget
• CV = 0: on budget
• CV > 0: under budget

3) Cost Performance Index (CPI)

• CPI = EV / AC
  Interpretation:
• CPI < 1: inefficient cost performance
• CPI = 1: cost performance as planned
• CPI > 1: cost performance better than planned

4) Schedule Performance Index (SPI)

• SPI = EV / PV
  Interpretation:
• SPI < 1: efficiency of schedule performance below plan
• SPI = 1: as planned
• SPI > 1: better than plan

5) Forecasting: Estimate at Completion (EAC) and Estimate to Complete (ETC)

A standard approach is to forecast future costs based on performance trends.

Common patterns:

• If cost performance continues at CPI rate: EAC ≈ BAC / CPI
• Where BAC is the total budget at completion.

MANCOSA exam answers often reward you for stating the logic behind the formula, not just the formula itself.

Worked Example (Complete Scenario)

Assume the lab upgrade has a total budget at completion BAC = R2,000,000.

At a certain reporting date (say end of Month 3), you have:

• PV = R600,000 (scheduled work value by this date)
• EV = R500,000 (budgeted value of work actually completed)
• AC = R650,000 (actual spending to date)

Compute:

1. SV = EV − PV = 500,000 − 600,000 = −R100,000

   • Interpretation: behind schedule by EV vs PV.

2. CV = EV − AC = 500,000 − 650,000 = −R150,000

   • Interpretation: over budget.

3. CPI = EV / AC = 500,000 / 650,000 ≈ 0.769

   • Cost efficiency is about 76.9% of planned value.
   • For every R1 spent, you earn only about R0.769 worth of planned work value.

4. SPI = EV / PV = 500,000 / 600,000 ≈ 0.833

   • Schedule efficiency is 83.3% of planned progress.

Now forecast EAC using the “cost performance continues” logic:

• EAC ≈ BAC / CPI = 2,000,000 / 0.769 ≈ R2,600,000 (approx.)

This indicates a likely overrun if nothing changes. An exam answer should then propose corrective actions such as:

• diagnose why AC is rising (perhaps rework due to network complexity),
• evaluate whether the schedule delay is causing overtime costs,
• apply risk mitigation or add resources strategically if that improves CPI,
• consider change control if scope is expanding.

Interpreting EVM Results: Common Patterns

Examiners frequently test interpretation.

Pattern A: CPI < 1 and SPI < 1

• Costs are higher than planned and progress is behind schedule.
• Likely cause: inefficiency and delays leading to rework.

Pattern B: CPI < 1 but SPI > 1

• You’re behind schedule? Not in this case—SPI > 1 means ahead schedule.
• Means: you progressed faster but at extra cost. Might happen if you hired additional contractors or overtime.

Pattern C: CPI > 1 but SPI < 1

• Costs efficient but schedule behind.
• Could suggest under-spending (e.g., waiting for approvals) or that tasks were delayed though done efficiently.

Your ability to diagnose the likely scenario earns marks because it shows you can apply EVM, not just compute it.

Establishing EV Measurement Rules: The Biggest Practical Challenge

EVM depends on defining how EV is determined. A % complete approach is common but must be controlled.

Common EV measurement rules include:

• 0/100 rule: either no value earned until complete, then 100% credit (used for short tasks or tasks with clear completion criteria)
• 50/50 rule: 50% credit at halfway milestone, then 50% at finish (used when intermediate outputs are objectively verifiable)
• Percent complete with measurement: based on deliverable measurements (e.g., number of components installed, test cases passed)

In an exam scenario, if the question says “progress reporting used subjective estimates,” then you can argue that EV may be inaccurate. A good control system uses objective milestones.

Linking EVM to Change Control and Corrective Actions

EVM results trigger decisions:

• If CV and SPI are worsening, consider schedule compression or scope adjustments (with approval).
• If cost overruns originate from a risk event, activate contingency plans.
• If the root cause is quality defects, improve processes and acceptance criteria.

A strong answer explains the feedback loop:

1. measure performance via EVM,
2. diagnose root causes,
3. select corrective actions,
4. update forecasts,
5. implement change control for any baseline changes,
6. communicate to stakeholders.

Performance Reporting: Stakeholders Care About Meaning

Project managers must communicate performance results in a way stakeholders understand:

• not only numbers, but also implications and decisions needed.

A typical reporting structure includes:

• current status (on/off track),
• key variances (SV, CV),
• forecasts (EAC),
• risks and changes,
• next period action plan.

In MANCOSA-style tasks, mark allocations often reward clarity: use bullet points for decisions and actions, keep computations clear, and link results to recommended steps.

MANCOSA Control Techniques Beyond EVM: Quality, Procurement Control, Stakeholder and Documentation (PM)

EVM is essential but not sufficient. Projects are also controlled through quality assurance, procurement monitoring, stakeholder communication and documentation discipline. This final section integrates these “control dimensions” and connects them to planning outputs.

Quality Control and Quality Assurance in Control Systems

Quality assurance (QA) focuses on ensuring that processes are followed and capable of producing quality outcomes. Quality control (QC) focuses on verifying that outputs meet requirements (inspection and testing).

In project control:

• QA ensures the plan is executed correctly,
• QC confirms deliverables are acceptable.

Quality Metrics Examples for the Lab Project

Possible quality metrics:

• workstation functionality rate (e.g., % workstations passing boot and core applications)
• network uptime during test window
• defect density in the lab management configuration
• user acceptance scores against criteria

A complete exam answer should show how metrics link to acceptance:

• What constitutes “pass” for functional testing?
• Who signs off?
• What evidence is required (test reports, logs, screenshots, installation certificates)?

Procurement Control: Managing Contracts, Delivery and Compliance

Procurement is often a schedule and cost driver. Procurement control monitors:

• supplier performance,
• delivery timeliness,
• quality compliance,
• invoicing accuracy,
• contract milestones.

A procurement control plan can include:

• delivery inspection points,
• acceptance criteria for goods/services,
• tracking of lead times,
• escalation procedures.

Example: Supplier Performance and Lead Time Control

If a supplier previously delivered within 3 weeks but begins delivering in 5 weeks, the procurement control system should:

• detect the trend early (monitor lead time variance),
• assess schedule impact (compare to schedule baseline),
• trigger escalation (supplier relationship management),
• update risk register (supplier delay probability increases),
• apply change control if mitigation requires scope/schedule adjustments.

Stakeholder Management as a Control Mechanism

Stakeholders can affect project direction through approvals, feedback, and changing expectations. Stakeholder control includes:

• identifying stakeholders and their influence,
• managing communication frequency and content,
• recording decisions and feedback,
• ensuring approvals align with baselines.

In exam answers, stakeholder management should be linked to change control:

• if stakeholders request new features,
• evaluate as change,
• assess impact,
• approve/decline formally,
• update plan and communicate decisions.

Documentation Control: Keeping Evidence and Accountability

Documentation is not bureaucracy—it provides traceability. For planning and control, typical documents include:

• project charter (authority and objectives)
• project management plan (how work is executed and controlled)
• WBS dictionary and baseline schedule
• risk register updates
• change request forms and approval logs
• EVM reports and variance analyses
• quality plans, test reports and acceptance records
• procurement documents (contracts, delivery notes, inspection sign-offs)
• lessons learned register

In many exam questions, you may be asked:

• “What should be recorded when a risk occurs?”
• “What evidence is needed for acceptance?”

Answers that mention documentation and evidence tend to score well because they show control discipline.

Performance Reviews, Audits and Lessons Learned

Control techniques also include formal review cycles:

• Status meetings: review schedule and cost status, blockers
• Performance reviews: EVM metrics and forecasts
• Quality audits: ensure processes meet standards
• Risk reviews: update probabilities and mitigation effectiveness
• Post-implementation reviews: lessons learned and improvement actions

Lessons learned should feed back into future planning:

• update organisational process assets,
• refine estimation parameters,
• improve risk response templates,
• adjust EV measurement rules.

Case Study Integration: End-to-End Control in a Realistic Scenario

To show how these techniques work together, consider a realistic “mid-project control” case for the computer lab upgrade.

Scenario Setup

By Month 3:

• Hardware procurement is behind schedule.
• Installation team reports increased rework due to network configuration complexity.
• Stakeholders request additional computers (change request submitted).
• Budget spending is higher than expected because of overtime and additional supplier logistics fees.

You apply control in four steps:

1. Schedule and cost measurement via EVM

   • Using PV = R600,000, EV = R500,000, AC = R650,000 (as earlier).
   • Result: SV = −R100,000, CV = −R150,000.
   • CPI ≈ 0.769, SPI ≈ 0.833.

2. Risk review

   • Supplier delay risk probability increases from medium to high.
   • Network configuration complexity becomes higher probability due to observed rework.
   • Activate mitigation: pilot configuration template, allocate specialist for troubleshooting.

3. Change control analysis

   • Additional computers request assessed for schedule impact (longer delivery lead time),
     cost impact (equipment and installation),
     quality impact (testing scope),
     risk impact (power/cooling and compatibility).
   • Decision options:
     • approve within updated timeline,
     • defer to phase 2,
     • reject due to budget constraints.

4. Quality control verification

   • Ensure rework is addressed: expand testing coverage and define clearer acceptance thresholds.
   • Confirm that deliverables meet acceptance criteria to avoid repeated rework loops.

Likely Control Outcomes

Based on such a scenario:

• EAC forecast might rise to around R2,600,000 if cost performance continues at CPI.
• The critical path may shift: procurement delays may make hardware delivery tasks critical.
• Approved changes (if any) must update baseline and time-phased budget.
• Improved testing and specialist support may improve future CPI (raising EV by improving task completion efficiency).

This end-to-end case demonstrates that control is not a single technique; it is an integrated system using measurement, diagnosis, response and change governance.

Common Exam-Style “Short Answers” to Practise

Even if your exam is not purely theory-based, short structured answers can earn marks. Practise the following points as template language:

• Define baseline: “The approved scope, schedule and cost plan used as reference for variance measurement.”
• Purpose of WBS: “Decomposes scope to enable planning, estimating, assigning responsibility and measuring progress at work package level.”
• Purpose of EVM: “Integrates scope/schedule/cost by comparing PV, EV and AC to compute variances and forecast outcomes.”
• What triggers change control: “Any request that affects scope, schedule, cost or quality baselines must be assessed through a formal impact process and approved by the authorised authority.”
• Purpose of risk register: “Captures identified risks, their probability/impact, owners, response strategies and triggers to support monitoring and control.”
• Meaning of CPI: “Shows cost efficiency; CPI < 1 indicates spending is higher than earned value.”

South African University Exam Fit: Relevant Course Keywords (MANCOSA Emphasis)

MANCOSA students commonly prepare for module content that overlaps with project management and related management disciplines taught across South Africa. In your notes, align vocabulary with common university course labels such as:

• MANCOSA Project Management (often the core home for project planning and control techniques)
• Operations Management (when planning, scheduling and process control overlap)
• Quality Management / Quality Assurance (when quality plans and acceptance criteria drive control)
• Risk Management (when risk registers, mitigation plans and contingency governance are central)

Even when the module code differs by institution, the exam language for planning and control tends to be consistent: baselines, work packages, critical path, change control, risk register, earned value, variance and forecasting, quality acceptance, and procurement monitoring.

Final Revision Checklist (Exam-Day Control Thinking)

Use the following checklist during revision and during exam writing. High-scoring responses typically touch each bullet with some concrete example or application.

1. Plan baselines clearly
   • scope (WBS), schedule (activities, dependencies, CPM), cost (budget by work package)
2. Convert scope into measurable work packages
   • define acceptance criteria and how EV will be measured
3. Apply scheduling logic
   • explain critical path and float
4. Manage uncertainty
   • maintain and update risk register; plan triggers and contingency
5. Control performance with measurement
   • compare PV vs EV vs AC; compute SV/CV/CPI/SPI; forecast EAC
6. Enforce change control
   • impact assessment + approval + baseline update + communication
7. Control quality, procurement and stakeholder approvals
   • QA/QC evidence, supplier performance tracking, decision documentation
8. Close the loop
   • corrective action, re-forecasting, lessons learned for the next phase

Summary

Project planning and control techniques transform project intent into measurable execution and disciplined governance. A strong plan begins with a WBS and baselines for scope, schedule and cost, then translates into a logical schedule using network methods and critical path thinking. Control techniques—especially earned value management—provide objective measurement of schedule and cost efficiency, while risk and change control ensure that uncertainty and evolving requirements do not undermine delivery. Finally, quality, procurement and stakeholder controls ensure that performance metrics reflect real deliverables and accepted outcomes, not just activity completion.