SPKV102 Introduction to Psychology Part 2 Exam Guide: Nelson Mandela University (NMU) General & Applied Psychology

This exam guide brings together the core ideas usually tested in the second part of an introductory psychology module at Nelson Mandela University, with a strong focus on memory, learning, motivation, emotion, intelligence, personality, social behaviour, and abnormal psychology. It is written as a practical study resource for revision, essay preparation, short questions, and application-based exam answers. The emphasis is on understanding concepts clearly, comparing theories accurately, and using real-life examples in a way that suits South African university assessment style.

1. Foundations of Psychological Science and Core Approaches

Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. In an introductory module such as SPKV102 Introduction to Psychology Part 2, the exam often expects more than simple definitions. A strong answer shows that psychology is both a science and a human study: it uses systematic methods, but it also deals with thoughts, feelings, motives, relationships, and behaviour in context. At Nelson Mandela University, the kind of questions commonly asked in this area may require you to explain a theory, compare two views, or apply a concept to an everyday situation.

What psychology studies

Psychology investigates a wide range of topics, including:

• how people perceive and remember information
• why people learn certain behaviours and habits
• how motivation influences action
• how emotions shape decision-making
• why individuals differ in intelligence and personality
• how people behave in groups
• why some people experience psychological distress or disorders

A useful way to remember psychology is that it examines both internal processes and observable behaviour. Internal processes include attention, memory, thinking, emotion, and motivation. Observable behaviour includes actions such as speaking, helping, avoiding, studying, fighting, or quitting. In exam answers, it is often important to show that behaviour is not caused by only one factor. For example, a student who performs badly in an exam may be affected by poor sleep, low motivation, test anxiety, weak study strategies, family pressure, or past failure experiences.

The major psychological approaches

A common exam requirement is to compare major approaches. These are not just abstract theories; they are different ways of explaining human behaviour.

1. Biological approach

The biological approach explains behaviour in terms of the brain, nervous system, hormones, genes, and evolution. It assumes that many psychological processes have a physical basis.

Examples:

• Depression may be linked to brain chemistry and genetic vulnerability.
• Stress can activate the autonomic nervous system and increase heart rate.
• Memory problems may follow injury to brain structures such as the hippocampus.

Strengths:

• It connects psychology with neuroscience and medicine.
• It is useful for understanding disorders and treatment.
• It offers measurable, testable explanations.

Limitations:

• It may overemphasize biology and ignore social context.
• It does not fully explain differences in culture, upbringing, or learning.

2. Behavioural approach

The behavioural approach focuses on learned behaviour. It argues that much behaviour is acquired through conditioning and reinforcement.

Key ideas:

• Classical conditioning: learning through association
• Operant conditioning: learning through consequences
• Observation and imitation: learning from models

Example:
A learner who receives praise for class participation may participate more often in future. A child who is scolded for touching a hot stove learns to avoid it.

Strengths:

• It is practical and useful in education, parenting, and therapy.
• It explains how habits are formed and changed.
• It is based on observable evidence.

Limitations:

• It can ignore thoughts, feelings, and meaning.
• It may reduce complex human behaviour to stimulus-response patterns.

3. Cognitive approach

The cognitive approach studies mental processes such as perception, attention, memory, language, and problem-solving. It treats people as active information processors rather than passive responders.

Example:
Two students can receive the same grade and react differently because one interprets it as failure while the other sees it as a challenge.

Strengths:

• It explains how people interpret events.
• It is highly relevant to learning and decision-making.
• It supports understanding of memory and problem-solving.

Limitations:

• It may not fully consider emotion, culture, or unconscious motives.
• Some internal processes are difficult to measure directly.

4. Psychodynamic approach

The psychodynamic approach, associated with Sigmund Freud, explains behaviour through unconscious conflicts, early childhood experiences, and defence mechanisms. Freud believed that hidden desires and internal conflict influence personality and behaviour.

Key ideas:

• unconscious mind
• id, ego, and superego
• repression and other defence mechanisms
• importance of early development

Strengths:

• It highlighted the role of childhood experience and unconscious processes.
• It influenced therapy and clinical psychology.

Limitations:

• Many ideas are difficult to test scientifically.
• Some concepts are considered outdated or too speculative.

5. Humanistic approach

The humanistic approach emphasizes free will, personal growth, self-concept, and self-actualisation. It focuses on the subjective experience of the person and the desire to become one’s best self.

Associated thinkers:

• Carl Rogers
• Abraham Maslow

Strengths:

• It respects individual choice and dignity.
• It is useful in counselling and education.
• It highlights meaning and personal development.

Limitations:

• It may be too optimistic about human nature.
• It may not explain severe psychological disorders well.

Scientific method and research thinking

Introductory psychology exams often require an understanding of how psychological knowledge is produced. The scientific method is essential because psychology aims to go beyond opinion and guesswork.

The usual steps are:

1. Observe a phenomenon
2. Formulate a question
3. Develop a hypothesis
4. Collect data
5. Analyse results
6. Draw conclusions
7. Replicate findings

A hypothesis is a testable prediction. For example: “Students who use spaced revision will remember more information than students who cram the night before.” This statement can be tested empirically.

Important research concepts include:

• Independent variable: the factor manipulated by the researcher
• Dependent variable: the outcome measured
• Control group: a comparison group that does not receive the treatment
• Validity: whether the study measures what it claims to measure
• Reliability: whether the results are consistent

A common exam trap is confusing validity and reliability. A test may be reliable without being valid. For instance, a bathroom scale that always shows 3 kg too much is reliable because it is consistent, but not valid because it is inaccurate.

Ethics in psychology

Ethics is a frequent exam topic because psychology often involves human participants. Ethical principles include:

• informed consent
• voluntary participation
• protection from harm
• right to withdraw
• confidentiality
• debriefing

These principles matter especially when studies involve deception, stress, vulnerable groups, or private information. Ethical practice is not only a formal rule; it protects dignity and supports trustworthy research. In exam answers, it helps to explain why an ethically weak study may be scientifically questionable, because people who feel exploited may not respond naturally or may withdraw.

How to write strong exam answers in this area

For short-answer or essay questions, structure matters. A high-quality response usually:

• begins with a clear definition
• explains the concept in detail
• gives an example
• compares it with another concept when needed
• ends with relevance to behaviour, learning, or mental health

If asked to compare approaches, do not just list them. Explain how each approach would interpret the same behaviour. For example, low exam performance can be explained biologically through stress hormones, behaviourally through poor study reinforcement, cognitively through negative self-talk, and humanistically through blocked self-actualisation. This kind of multi-angle answer shows real understanding.

2. Learning, Memory, and Thinking

Learning and memory are central to psychology because they affect academic performance, decision-making, and daily functioning. In an exam, these topics are often linked: learning affects what enters memory, memory affects recall, and thinking shapes how information is used. At NMU level, you should be able to define the processes, compare theories, and apply them to study behaviour, classroom learning, or real-life habits.

Learning: the basic idea

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour or knowledge that results from experience. It is not the same as temporary performance change. A learner may guess correctly in class once without having learned the material well. True learning involves some lasting internal change.

There are three major learning traditions often covered in introductory psychology:

Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning is learning by association. A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a response.

Key terms:

• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): naturally triggers a response
• Unconditioned response (UCR): natural response to the UCS
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): previously neutral stimulus that now triggers response
• Conditioned response (CR): learned response to the CS

Example:
If a student always hears a stressful sound before receiving bad news, the sound alone may later produce anxiety. Over time, the sound becomes associated with stress.

Why it matters:

• explains emotional reactions
• helps understand phobias and fear learning
• useful in advertising and classroom behaviour

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is learning through consequences. Behaviours followed by reinforcement increase, while behaviours followed by punishment or lack of reinforcement decrease.

Key terms:

• Positive reinforcement: adding something pleasant to increase behaviour
• Negative reinforcement: removing something unpleasant to increase behaviour
• Punishment: consequence that reduces behaviour
• Extinction: reduction of a learned behaviour when reinforcement stops

Examples:

• A student studies more because praise follows good results.
• A child stops shouting when the parent ignores the behaviour.
• A person avoids dangerous driving after receiving a fine.

Important distinction:
Negative reinforcement is not punishment. Negative reinforcement increases behaviour by removing an unpleasant condition, while punishment decreases behaviour.

Observational learning

Observational learning, or modelling, occurs when people learn by watching others. This idea is strongly associated with Albert Bandura.

Processes involved:

• attention
• retention
• reproduction
• motivation

Example:
A teenager may copy the study habits of an older sibling who is seen as successful. A child may imitate aggressive behaviour witnessed in adults or on social media.

Why this matters:

• explains social learning
• shows that behaviour is not learned only through direct reward
• helps understand family influence, peer pressure, and media effects

Memory systems

Memory is the ability to encode, store, and retrieve information. A common exam question is to describe the stages of memory and explain why students forget information.

Sensory memory

Sensory memory briefly holds incoming sensory information. It lasts a very short time but gives the brain a momentary record of stimuli.

Types:

• visual sensory memory
• auditory sensory memory

Example:
When a lecturer changes slides quickly, students may retain a brief afterimage or echo of the previous content.

Short-term memory and working memory

Short-term memory holds information for a limited time and capacity. Working memory is a more active system that manipulates information for thinking and problem-solving.

Important points:

• short-term memory capacity is limited
• rehearsal helps keep information active
• working memory is involved in mental arithmetic, reading comprehension, and following instructions

Example:
A learner may hold a phone number in mind long enough to dial it. If interrupted, the number may be lost unless rehearsed.

Long-term memory

Long-term memory stores information for extended periods. It is usually divided into:

• Explicit memory: conscious memory
  • episodic memory: personal events
  • semantic memory: facts and concepts
• Implicit memory: unconscious memory
  • procedural memory: skills and habits
  • priming and conditioned responses

Example:
Remembering your first day at university is episodic memory. Knowing that psychology studies behaviour and mental processes is semantic memory. Riding a bicycle is procedural memory.

Why forgetting happens

Forgetting is often a major part of exam questions. It does not always mean memory is gone forever. Sometimes retrieval fails.

Common causes of forgetting:

• Decay: memory trace weakens over time
• Interference: one memory disrupts another
  • proactive interference: old information disrupts new
  • retroactive interference: new information disrupts old
• Retrieval failure: the information exists but cues are missing
• Motivated forgetting: emotionally unpleasant material is avoided or suppressed

Example:
A student may confuse two similar theories studied in the same week. This may be interference rather than forgetting from lack of intelligence.

Ways to improve memory

This is a highly practical exam area. Answers should show both theory and application.

Effective strategies include:

1. Rehearsal

   • repeating information
   • useful for short-term retention, but not always deep learning

2. Elaboration

   • connecting new information to existing knowledge
   • improves understanding and long-term storage

3. Organisation

   • using headings, categories, concept maps, and summaries
   • helps reduce overload

4. Mnemonics

   • acronyms, imagery, rhythm, or memory aids
   • useful for lists and sequences

5. Spaced practice

   • studying over time rather than cramming
   • stronger retention than massed practice

6. Testing effect

   • retrieving information strengthens memory
   • practice tests are often better than rereading

7. Context and state cues

   • recall improves when learning and testing conditions are similar
   • mood and environment may matter

A useful application example is exam preparation. A student who rereads notes repeatedly may feel familiar with the material but still fail to retrieve it under pressure. A student who tests themselves, explains concepts aloud, and studies over several days is more likely to remember accurately.

Thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making

Thinking involves mental manipulation of information. In psychology, it includes concepts, reasoning, problem-solving, and judgment.

Concepts and categories

A concept is a mental grouping of similar objects, ideas, or events. Concepts help people simplify reality.

Example:
The concept of “stress” includes many related experiences such as pressure, worry, overload, and physiological arousal.

Problem-solving

Problem-solving is the process of reaching a goal when the path is not immediately obvious.

Common obstacles:

• fixation
• mental set
• irrelevant information
• lack of strategy

Strategies:

• trial and error
• algorithms
• heuristics
• insight

A heuristic is a mental shortcut that saves time but may lead to errors. For example, a student may assume that a long answer is automatically better than a concise, accurate one. That assumption can be wrong.

Decision-making biases

People do not always make rational decisions. Biases can shape judgment.

Important biases:

• confirmation bias: seeking evidence that supports existing beliefs
• availability heuristic: judging likelihood based on what comes easily to mind
• anchoring: relying too heavily on the first piece of information
• overconfidence: overestimating one’s accuracy

Example:
After hearing one news story about a crime, a person may believe crime is more common than it really is because vivid examples are easy to recall.

Applying learning and memory in an exam

If a question asks how a learner can improve performance, it is useful to combine several ideas:

• use reinforcement to strengthen study habits
• create associations with familiar examples
• study in short repeated sessions
• test recall regularly
• reduce interference by separating similar topics
• use clear cues and summaries
• explain concepts in your own words

The strongest answers often show that memory is not just storage. It is active reconstruction. This means recall can be shaped by context, emotion, expectations, and prior knowledge. In real life, this is why two students can attend the same lecture but remember different details later.

3. Motivation, Emotion, and Stress

Motivation and emotion are central to understanding human behaviour because they drive action, sustain effort, and influence well-being. Exam questions in this area often ask you to define motivation, compare theories, discuss emotional expression, or explain the impact of stress on performance and health. Because these concepts are connected, the best answers show how motivation, emotion, and stress interact in everyday life.

Understanding motivation

Motivation refers to the forces that energise, direct, and sustain behaviour. It answers the questions: Why do people act? Why do they continue or stop? Why do some people persist despite difficulty?

Motivation can be:

• intrinsic: driven by interest, enjoyment, or personal meaning
• extrinsic: driven by rewards, pressure, or avoidance of punishment

Example:
A student who studies psychology because the subject is fascinating is intrinsically motivated. A student who studies only to avoid failing is extrinsically motivated.

Both types matter. Intrinsic motivation often supports deeper engagement, while extrinsic motivation can initiate behaviour when internal interest is weak. In many real situations, people are motivated by a combination of both.

Major theories of motivation

1. Biological and drive theories

Drive theories suggest that behaviour is motivated by the need to reduce internal tension or restore balance. Biological needs such as hunger, thirst, and sleep create drives that push behaviour.

Example:
A tired person seeks rest to reduce discomfort and restore energy.

Strength:

• explains basic survival behaviour

Limitation:

• does not fully explain curiosity, achievement, or sensation-seeking

2. Incentive theory

Incentive theory emphasizes external rewards and punishments. People act because they expect something desirable or want to avoid something unpleasant.

Example:
A learner may attend extra tutoring because of the incentive of higher marks.

3. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow proposed that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy, from basic to higher-level growth needs.

Typical order:

1. physiological needs
2. safety needs
3. love and belonging
4. esteem
5. self-actualisation

This theory is often asked in exams because it is easy to explain and apply. A student who is hungry, unsafe, or under severe financial stress may struggle to focus on self-esteem or academic excellence. However, the hierarchy is not always rigid. People sometimes pursue achievement or meaning even when lower needs are not fully satisfied.

4. Achievement motivation

Achievement motivation refers to the desire to succeed, excel, and meet standards of excellence.

Two patterns often discussed:

• hope of success
• fear of failure

Example:
One student volunteers for presentations because they enjoy challenge. Another avoids presentations because embarrassment feels overwhelming.

Emotion: what it is and why it matters

Emotion is a complex state involving subjective feeling, physiological arousal, cognitive appraisal, and expressive behaviour. Emotions are not just “feelings”; they affect the whole person.

Components of emotion:

• bodily changes
• conscious experience
• facial expression and body language
• thoughts and interpretation
• action tendencies

Example:
Before a job interview, a person may feel nervous, notice a fast heartbeat, think “I might fail,” and behave cautiously.

Theories of emotion

James-Lange theory

This theory proposes that physiological arousal comes first, and the emotion follows from the interpretation of bodily changes.

Simple idea:
We feel afraid because we tremble, not the other way around.

Cannon-Bard theory

This theory argues that bodily arousal and emotional experience happen at the same time.

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory

This theory suggests that emotion depends on both physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation.

Example:
A racing heart could mean fear, excitement, or anger depending on the situation.

Why this matters:
Two students may experience the same physical symptoms before an exam, but one interprets them as excitement and the other as panic. The difference in interpretation can influence performance and coping.

Emotional regulation

Emotional regulation is the ability to manage feelings in constructive ways. This includes calming oneself, reframing situations, and choosing appropriate responses.

Strategies:

• deep breathing
• cognitive reappraisal
• social support
• problem-solving
• healthy routines

Poor regulation can lead to impulsive actions, conflict, or mental health difficulties. Good regulation supports academic performance, relationships, and resilience.

Stress and its effects

Stress is a response to demands that are perceived as challenging or threatening. It can be caused by academic pressure, family conflict, financial problems, uncertainty, illness, discrimination, or trauma.

Types of stress

• Acute stress: short-term stress
• Chronic stress: ongoing stress over time
• Eustress: positive stress that motivates
• Distress: harmful stress that overwhelms

Example:
A student may feel eustress before an important presentation because it sharpens focus. Chronic financial strain, however, may produce distress and exhaustion.

Physiological stress response

When stressed, the body activates systems that prepare for action.

Effects may include:

• increased heart rate
• rapid breathing
• muscle tension
• sweating
• difficulty sleeping
• reduced digestion

Over time, prolonged stress can affect immunity, concentration, mood, and physical health. This is why stress management is not only about comfort but also about functioning.

Coping with stress

Coping refers to efforts to manage demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding resources.

Two broad forms:

• problem-focused coping: acting on the source of stress
• emotion-focused coping: managing emotional distress

Examples:

• Problem-focused: making a study plan, seeking tutoring, budgeting money
• Emotion-focused: talking to a friend, prayer, relaxation, reframing thoughts

A balanced answer should show that neither style is always best. If the stressor can be changed, problem-focused coping is useful. If the stressor cannot be removed immediately, emotion-focused coping helps reduce distress.

Practical application to student life

Many exam questions use student examples because they are relatable. Consider a learner who is underperforming:

• Motivation may be low because the subject feels irrelevant.
• Emotion may include fear, shame, or frustration.
• Stress may come from deadlines, family expectations, and lack of time.

A well-developed response could explain that poor performance is not just laziness. It may result from a chain of factors: low self-efficacy, repeated failure, negative emotional states, and inadequate coping skills. The psychology of motivation and emotion helps explain why support, structure, and encouragement can improve outcomes.

Short comparison summary

Concept	Main question	Key idea	Example
Motivation	Why do people act?	Forces that energise behaviour	Studying for a test
Emotion	What is being felt and expressed?	Feeling plus bodily and cognitive response	Anxiety before an interview
Stress	How does pressure affect the person?	Response to demands	Exam overload

For exam purposes, this table of relationships is useful because many questions ask for distinctions and links. Strong answers show that motivation, emotion, and stress are connected rather than isolated topics.

4. Intelligence, Personality, and Individual Differences

A major part of introductory psychology is the study of how people differ. Intelligence and personality are especially important because they are often misunderstood in everyday conversation. Exam answers should be careful, balanced, and precise. Instead of treating intelligence as a single fixed quantity or personality as a simple label, show awareness of complexity, measurement issues, and the influence of both nature and environment.

Intelligence: what it means

Intelligence is usually defined as the capacity to learn from experience, reason, solve problems, adapt to new situations, and use knowledge effectively. Different theories define intelligence in different ways, which is why this topic often becomes an essay or comparison question.

Major theories of intelligence

1. Spearman’s general intelligence

Charles Spearman proposed that people have a general mental ability, often called g, which supports performance across many tasks. He also recognized specific abilities for different activities.

This theory suggests that a person who performs well in one cognitive area may also do well in others because of overall mental ability.

2. Thurstone’s primary mental abilities

Louis Thurstone argued that intelligence is made up of several distinct abilities rather than one general factor.

Common abilities include:

• verbal comprehension
• numerical ability
• spatial ability
• perceptual speed
• memory
• reasoning

This view is useful because it explains why a person may be strong in language but weak in mathematics, or vice versa.

3. Multiple intelligences

Howard Gardner proposed that intelligence is not a single ability but a range of relatively independent capacities. These may include linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and others.

This theory is popular in education because it values different strengths. However, it is also criticised because some of the “intelligences” are difficult to measure in the same way as traditional cognitive abilities.

4. Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognise, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively.

It includes:

• self-awareness
• self-regulation
• empathy
• social skills
• motivation

Example:
A student with emotional intelligence may notice rising frustration during group work and respond calmly instead of attacking others.

Measuring intelligence

Intelligence is often measured through IQ tests and cognitive assessments. These tests aim to compare performance against norms.

Important points:

• tests should be standardised
• scores should be interpreted carefully
• culture and language can affect results
• test performance is not the same as human worth

A strong exam response should avoid simplistic statements such as “IQ shows how smart someone is.” It is better to say that IQ tests estimate certain cognitive abilities under structured conditions, but they do not capture the full range of human potential.

Factors influencing intelligence

Intelligence is shaped by both heredity and environment.

Biological influences

• genes
• brain development
• nutrition
• prenatal conditions

Environmental influences

• quality of education
• family stimulation
• language exposure
• stress and poverty
• health and sleep

In a South African context, educational access and social inequality can strongly affect measured performance. An exam answer may be stronger if it recognises that differences in test scores do not prove differences in inherent potential alone.

Personality: the enduring pattern of the person

Personality refers to relatively stable patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that distinguish one person from another.

Personality is studied through traits, psychodynamic processes, humanistic self-concept, and social-cognitive patterns.

Personality theories

1. Trait theories

Trait theories focus on enduring characteristics.

Examples of traits:

• introversion vs extraversion
• emotional stability vs neuroticism
• conscientiousness
• openness
• agreeableness

The Big Five model is especially common in psychology. It proposes five broad dimensions:

1. openness to experience
2. conscientiousness
3. extraversion
4. agreeableness
5. neuroticism

Why it matters:
These traits help explain patterns of work behaviour, relationships, and coping styles.

2. Psychodynamic theory

As noted earlier, psychodynamic theory emphasizes unconscious conflict, early experience, and defence mechanisms. Personality develops through internal struggle and the management of impulses and social rules.

Common defence mechanisms include:

• repression
• denial
• projection
• rationalisation
• displacement

Example:
A person who is angry at a lecturer but cannot express it may go home and snap at family members. This is displacement.

3. Humanistic theory

Humanistic theory sees personality as shaped by self-concept and the desire for growth.

Carl Rogers emphasised:

• self-concept
• unconditional positive regard
• congruence between real self and ideal self

A person whose environment offers acceptance and support is more likely to develop a healthy self-concept. If a person constantly receives criticism, they may experience incongruence and emotional distress.

4. Social-cognitive theory

Social-cognitive theory argues that personality is influenced by thinking patterns, beliefs, expectations, and social learning. People are not passive; they interpret situations and respond based on personal meaning and self-efficacy.

Self-concept and self-esteem

Self-concept is how a person sees themselves. Self-esteem is the value they place on themselves.

Example:
A student may see themselves as “good at language but weak in numbers” and may feel confident in one area but insecure in another.

These constructs matter because they influence motivation, risk-taking, and persistence. Low self-esteem can lead to avoidance of challenge, while realistic self-esteem can support resilience.

Nature, nurture, and personhood

A common exam question asks whether personality and intelligence are inherited or learned. The best answer is that both matter. Genes may influence temperament or potential, while environment shapes expression, opportunity, and adaptation. For example, a child may inherit a tendency toward high energy, but parenting, schooling, and social expectations will influence how that energy is expressed.

Applying individual differences in exam answers

When asked to analyse behaviour, do not assume one cause. A student who performs well may have:

• strong cognitive skills
• high conscientiousness
• supportive environment
• effective study habits
• healthy self-concept

A student who struggles may face:

• anxiety
• low confidence
• poor sleep
• inadequate resources
• weak time management

The ability to think in layered terms is a sign of good psychological understanding. Personality and intelligence are best seen as interacting with context, not as fixed labels that explain everything.

5. Social Behaviour, Abnormal Psychology, and Exam Preparation Strategy

The final major area in introductory psychology often pulls together social behaviour and mental health. These topics are especially important because they show how people are influenced by others, how norms shape action, and how psychological distress is understood. A strong exam guide must also help you use this knowledge effectively in answers, because many students lose marks not from lack of content but from weak structure and imprecise terms.

Social behaviour

Social behaviour refers to how people think, feel, and act in relation to others. It includes conformity, obedience, attitudes, prejudice, attraction, helping, group influence, and aggression.

Conformity

Conformity is adjusting behaviour or beliefs to match a group.

Why people conform:

• to be accepted
• to avoid rejection
• because the group seems informed

Example:
A new student may dress and speak like the dominant peer group to fit in.

Conformity is not always negative. It can support social order, cooperation, and shared norms. However, it can also suppress independent thinking.

Obedience

Obedience is compliance with direct orders from an authority figure.

Example:
A worker may follow a supervisor’s instruction even if uneasy about it.

Exam relevance:
Obedience questions often ask why people follow authority and how situational pressure affects moral behaviour. A good answer should discuss authority, responsibility diffusion, fear of punishment, and social roles.

Attitudes and persuasion

An attitude is a learned tendency to evaluate something positively or negatively.

Attitudes have three components:

• cognitive: beliefs
• affective: feelings
• behavioural: action tendency

Example:
A student may believe exercise improves health, feel positive about it, and go to the gym regularly.

Persuasion attempts to change attitudes through messages, credibility, emotion, repetition, and social influence. In everyday life, advertising, political messaging, and peer opinion all try to shape attitudes.

Prejudice and discrimination

Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a group. Discrimination is unfair behaviour toward that group.

These are not the same:

• prejudice is an attitude
• discrimination is action

Causes may include:

• social categorisation
• stereotypes
• competition for resources
• learned norms
• insecurity or fear of difference

In a South African context, this topic is especially important because history and inequality have shaped social relations. Exam answers can be stronger if they recognise that prejudice is both individual and structural.

Helping behaviour and aggression

Helping behaviour involves assisting others, often linked to empathy, norms, and situational factors. Aggression involves behaviour intended to harm.

Factors influencing helping:

• mood
• empathy
• time pressure
• presence of others
• perceived need

Factors influencing aggression:

• frustration
• provocation
• exposure to violence
• substance use
• social learning
• environmental stress

Abnormal psychology

Abnormal psychology studies patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour that are distressing, maladaptive, or deviant from social expectations. It is important to use careful language here. Not every unusual behaviour is a disorder, and not every distressing experience means severe illness.

What counts as abnormal?

Common criteria include:

• deviation from social norms
• distress
• dysfunction
• danger
• statistical rarity

However, these criteria are not perfect. Cultural context matters. A behaviour that seems unusual in one setting may be normal in another. This is why psychology avoids simplistic labelling.

Models of psychological disorder

Biological model

This model focuses on genes, brain chemistry, and physiology. It is especially relevant for disorders that involve strong biological components.

Psychological models

These include:

• psychodynamic explanations
• behavioural explanations
• cognitive explanations
• humanistic explanations

Biopsychosocial model

The biopsychosocial model is one of the most useful frameworks because it combines biological, psychological, and social factors.

Example:
A depressive episode may involve genetic vulnerability, negative thinking, loss of a loved one, unemployment, and poor social support.

This model is valuable because it avoids one-sided explanations. In an exam, it is often the safest and most sophisticated way to discuss mental health.

Anxiety, depression, and related concerns

Introductory courses often expect basic awareness of common mental health difficulties.

Anxiety

Anxiety involves excessive fear, worry, and physiological arousal. It may interfere with concentration, sleep, and performance.

Depression

Depression involves persistent low mood, loss of interest, fatigue, guilt, and impaired functioning.

Stress-related problems

Prolonged stress may produce burnout, irritability, sleep problems, and reduced academic performance.

A careful exam answer should note that symptoms alone do not equal diagnosis. Diagnosis requires duration, intensity, and functional impairment, usually assessed by a trained professional.

Treatment and support

Psychological difficulties can be addressed through different forms of support:

• psychotherapy
• medication
• lifestyle change
• social support
• crisis intervention
• community care

A balanced answer recognises that treatment depends on the person and the nature of the difficulty. Some people benefit from talk therapy, others from medication, and many from a combination of support systems.

Study strategy for SPKV102 exams

To perform well in this module, revision must go beyond reading. The following methods are especially effective:

1. Learn definitions precisely

Many marks are lost because terms are vague. For example, do not say “punishment is when something bad happens.” Say that punishment is a consequence intended to reduce the likelihood of a behaviour.

2. Compare theories directly

Examiners like clear contrasts. Ask:

• What does this theory emphasise?
• What does it ignore?
• How does it explain the same behaviour differently from another theory?

3. Use examples

Examples turn a general answer into an applied answer. If explaining operant conditioning, show how praise, grades, and consequences affect behaviour. If explaining prejudice, show how stereotypes develop in groups.

4. Structure essays logically

A strong essay usually follows:

• definition
• explanation
• theory or evidence
• example
• evaluation
• conclusion

5. Avoid unsupported claims

Psychology is not just opinion. If you make a claim, ground it in theory or evidence.

High-value revision checklist

Before the exam, make sure you can do the following:

• define psychology and explain its scientific nature
• compare the major approaches
• explain learning theories and memory systems
• distinguish short-term and long-term memory
• describe motivation, emotion, and stress
• compare theories of intelligence
• explain major personality approaches
• define conformity, obedience, attitudes, prejudice, and aggression
• outline abnormal psychology using the biopsychosocial model
• apply concepts to student life, relationships, and mental health

Common mistakes to avoid

• confusing negative reinforcement with punishment
• treating memory as a single system
• saying intelligence is only IQ
• confusing prejudice with discrimination
• assuming personality is completely fixed
• using theory names without explanation
• forgetting to apply examples
• writing short paragraphs without development

Final exam-ready perspective

The strongest psychology answers show that behaviour has multiple causes. A person is not only a brain, not only a set of habits, not only a personality type, and not only a product of society. Psychology becomes powerful when it combines these perspectives carefully. For SPKV102 Introduction to Psychology Part 2, that integrative thinking is exactly what earns marks: precise definition, sound theory, relevant application, and clear comparison.